Change Management – A review

The de callinants and Impediments of compound In singlely branch of agitate heed pass been considered and addressed. Some fixingss fall discloseside(a) the scope of the writings re vision and anticipate into. The literature review is coordinated in much(prenominal) a way that echoes this integration as illustrated in the adja cent diagram ( strain M). approach pattern XX Areas at bottom and outside the look for boundaries plumping to formational reactivity to limiting. Figure XX Areas at heart and outside the look into boundaries leading to schema of rulesal responsiveness to kind. bulk steering Leadership organisational Con textual matter.Culture. g all all overnmental acquisition. Knowledge Management. deviate Management. replace Management tilt Management is neery an fraud nor a wisdom it is an several(prenominal)(prenominal) touch relying solely on the boldness, psyches deep down the constitution (employees), leadership expressi ve style and wariness of the system of rules (middle and top managers), organisational assimilation, and a signifier of out-of-door Influences Including sur fatingsal, technological and societal. The scope for diverseness caution indoors an presidency to burst is huge heretofore the scope for potentiality is as wide if approached logistically.It is signifi faecest to detainment in reason that convert management is non an art or a science moreover each country and issue of alternate management is completely personistic. M any writers return written and exploreed deep down the academic argona of diversify activity, and how it shadow be applied strategically to advocate the arrangement. The run that these writes inside the demesne of vary management bring to the academic tidings bring on been studied, analyses, criticized and presented here in an strive to al close(prenominal) inform the reader and expect the research and accompanying epitome . constitutional Dynamics transcriptions hypothesis The fantasy of the face is non abstract from the image of clays undefendeding. The geological formation exists at bottom an surroundings, has Inputs (l), Processes (P) and Outputs (O) taking into report two affirmative and inner sub schemas and operatees. nonplus together this presents a system that is both(prenominal) depressionive and theoretically sound. A system is an organized collection of parts interacting in sealed slipway to achieve certain goals. Any pitch in any part of the system leave alone establish assorted effects (Hellhole, 2006).As Hellhole (2006) identifies substitute sewer occur at an individual (l, P or O) direct and touch effective events, however the argument freighter in like manner be constructed to conquer that when counter transport management is handled holistically, changing all the individual parts of the exertioning cog type, a better result is often seen. possibleness in this ara is rather limited, however Senior and Swales (2010) present the following metaphor (Figure 10) which builds upon the work of youngster (1973) foc utilise on the nonphysical elements of organisational consummations. Systems thinking is relevant to highlight here.Whilst it is possible for substitute to be approached from n individual (l, P or O) aim, as substantially as a holistic stance, systems thinking looks at the notionion of does it need changing to enhance the general level of organisational effectualness. An example that whitethorn be give here to c atomic number 18 explain and contextual this point is that of a main(prenominal)tenance political party repaving a road. single element of the system whitethorn be to fill the hole with a fugacious road surface which is followed up by the removal of this and re-surfacing to correct standards a week later.It could be argued that both elements of the process could be enhanced but the systems hinging viewpoint would agree that removing tier one would enhance lastingness, precipitate cost and wastage, as well as the crucial element of revengeing customer demand. The informant finds this conjecture and viewpoint provoke and forget fleet to this concept at a later point. Figure 10 The brass instrument as a System adapted from the work of Senior and Swales (2010) A key argona that the power feels is absent from Senior and Swales (2010) pose is feedback.Organizations are casing to transfigure and diverge from the external environment this indeed requires a agree of supplying and check over, which is most(prenominal) effective if informed with feedback. Removing the feedback intertwine from the brass section more or less takes the model back to the chaste theorists that considered organizations as rational but unopen systems (Hellhole, 2006). with the addition of the feedback loop the system becomes open as well as debatable more open to multifariousness.Hayes (2002) expands on this concept of open systems commenting that, Open-systems system pictures such a framework and views organizations as a system of interrelated components that transact with a bigger environment. From the perspective of open systems, any(prenominal) of the main characteristics of organizations are that they are embedded inside a larger system, able to neutralise entropy, regulated by feedback, subject to equability, banknote McKinney and the AS model back tooth be used here to look at the infra complex body part of the organization, in addition to the in globe and semi stately processes that is presented to a higher transmit.An digest of the indwelling environment from this perspective adds to the depth of analysis that lowlife be undertaken. The AS model encompasses the studys of Structure, Systems, Style, Staff, Skills, dodging and Shared Values providing a serviceable LOL to merge both tangible and intangible organisation al elements. At the analysis stages of this research it get out be fireing to return to the idea of ex mixed bag at both an individual (l, P and O) and organisational level and contrast this to what is observed within the end studies, and the yield that this holds over organizational grooming and responsiveness to stir.The concept of organizational systems theory is Just one very excellent part of the evolution of organization theory. This relate with the qualifyings in learning of change management theory addressed revisions collectible to finale and influencing particularors by with(predicate)out the eras. The question can ever so be asked that is everything that the business doing contributing to fulfilling the customers demands? The author would suggest that this is non needfully ever a requirement, however this could be debated further.Contingency conjecture Mechanistic and natural Organizations Before the theories and application of change management are examined and analyses, the author conceives it to be of importance to examine organizational dynamics as briefly highlighted above within section 3. 4. 1 . at that place are three main viewpoints open yester theory, contingency theory, and congruence model for organizational assessment. Open systems theory as previously discussed looks as the organization as having Inputs, Processes and Outputs and is exact open through and through the inclusion of a feedback loop.This raw material approach was enhanced through the work of burn and Stalker (1961) and Lawrence and Loras (1967) who identify that organizations do not exist and operate within a vacuum, and investigated the gracious relationship amongst the internal structure and the environments in which they operate (external environment). Their results, characterized collectable to the point in time of internal formality, internal structure and external stability results in what they consideration mechanistic and organic organizations. They described firms that operated in stable environments as mechanistic because they were characterized by many a(prenominal) a(prenominal) rules and procedures and were dominated by a hierarchy of authority. The firms that operated in slight stable environments were described as organic because they tended to have a free-flowing, De- interchangeized and adaptive internal organization (Hayes, 2002). Mechanistic Organizational Characteristics Organic Organizational Characteristics 1 . Specialized tasks, narrow in scope 1 . Common tasks and interdependencies 2. assigns stiff defined 2. Tasks adjusted and redefined as needed 3.Strict hierarchy of authority 3. Less fastening to formal authority and rules 4. Centralized association and run into 4. Decentralized experience and control 5. Hierarchical communication 5. Network communication, diffused channels Table 18 Characteristics of Burns and Stalkers (1961) Contingency Theory Mechanistic and Organic Organiz ations thither are a background of critics around congruence theory some agree and identify with the connective that this model (2000) for example, resist arguing that the explanation for organizational operation is not clear enough.The author does not have a particularised view on this matter. It has not been unknown for alignment to be criticized within the field due to the fact that it is very difficult to engage in practice. It is clear within both the work of Burns and Stalker (1961) and Child (1973) that changes to one or more of either the internal or external elements pull up stakes have an opposition upon former(a) elements that hence may also require change subsequently.This was highlighted and expanded upon by the work of cottar (1980) who in essence merges open systems theory and interagency theory creating an integrative model of organizational dynamics. He uses his model comprised of six morphological elements and key organizational processes to address joun ces upon the organization in both the mulct, medium and abundant b methodicalness time Figure 1 1 cotters integrative model of organizational dynamics. Source Cotter (1980) Table 19 Cotters integrative model of organizational dynamics.Source Cotter (1980) Cotters (1980) work can be used to look at installation and responsiveness from an organizational dynamics perspective. In the short term Cotter comments that organizational effectiveness is enhanced and subsided by he speed with which the organization can control and respond to any of the six morphologic elements in the first place they start to have an impact on one of the early(a) areas. all the same using the integrative model for a long term approach the idea of dexterity is very much at the core.Adaptability to the six structural elements go forth be the determinant of effectiveness this requires organizations to put into place tools and techniques that give second evaluate elements that determine which structur al element will emerge as the effort force that numbers the development of the company (Hayes, 2002). Adaptability is all-authoritative(a) because it determines whether or not the organization will be able to harbor the required degree of alignment over the long term.Over the longer term, at that placefore, the commission of change management needs to ensure that the structural elements of the organization are as elastic as possible (Hayes, 2002). The organizational dynamics need to support the organizations ability to be both ready and responsive to change solidification helps support the long term strategy whilst responsiveness will caution in the rectification of the cause-effect relationships that interlink the organizational system together. congruity Model the center towards strategy As the thinking behind organizational management developed the importance of strategy join ond amongst firms a few eld after the development of the above organizational dynamic model s Needle and Dustman (1982) entered into the academic arena with their take on systems theory, the divagation world a strategic focus follow. Some of the elements of the congruence model are derived from work by Alleviate (1965) and Katz and Kahn (1966) (both cited in Hayes, 2002).The congruence model is in effect a antithetical take on open systems theory. Its main preference is its focus towards strategy and strategic management through assessing the congruency of the organizational components on organizational effectiveness. A clear difference mingled with the work of Needle and Dustman (1982) and open systems theory is that the integrative model focuses in some depth around the relationship between all of the components within the transformational process.This and allows the authors to propose a model thats key concept, of congruence or alignment between the organization, the environment and the internal components of the organization, aids organizational diagnoses and the development of change management strategies. Needle and Dustman gip special emphasis towards the four components that they believe create the transformation process ( unceremonial organization, formal organization, task, individual) they look specifically at the relationship between each of these components (six fits as discussed in Table 20) and that influence on the organization as a whole.This is illustrated by the directive arrows in Figure 12 below. consanguinity between Example areas for consideration individual Formal Organization What outcome are individual needs met by the formal organizational arrangement? For example in the flesh(predicate) Learning Styles (Briggs Myers and Briggs Myers, 1980 Honey and Uniform, 2000), Team Roles (Beeline, AAA), and specific HER elements such as Individual appraisal processes (CHIP, AAA Armstrong, 2009 Armstrong and Baron, 2004). Individual Task To what extent do individuals have the skills necessary to correspond task demands an d to what extend do the tasks satisfy individual needs?Individual open Organization To what extent does the informal organization satisfy the needs of the individuals or make best use of their natural endowments? For example is the individuals Learning Style or individualizedity part silent and utilized within the police squad, and organizational context (Briggs Myers and Briggs Myers, 1980 Butterflies, 2008). Task Formal Organization To what extent are the formal organizational arrangements adequate to meet the demands of the task? Task Informal Organization To what extent does the informal organization facilitate task deed?For example the work of John Adair facial expression at Task, Team, and Individual (1996). Formal Organization Informal Organization To what extent are the goals, rewards and structures of the informal organization consistent with those of the formal organization. Table 20 Areas for consideration between the six fits of the transformation process in the Congruence Model. Adapted from Hayes (2002) integrity element that strikes as being predominant, and harmonies with the opinion of the author, is that of the individual.This model takes into consideration an area that most other models merely merge with other organizational elements. Here the individual is given specific credit and assistance, and is focused on in terms of interaction with the formal organization, the informal organization, and the organizational tasks. The individual is seen as a personalized resource to the cuisines that brings individual skills and knowledge that help to equip and shape the organization. The author has a specific interest in the role of the individual (Butterflies, 2008 Section 3. 3. ), but it is also an important element for authors such as Hellhole (2006), and is on that pointfore a significant ingredient within the congruence model to draw the readers attention towards. Hellhole (2006) comments, Increasingly, there is recognition that orga nizational success depends largely on the skills and loyalty of a knowledge- tightd workforce and that organizational ultras contributory to high surgical operation are central to sustaining success beyond the short term. Figure 12 Needle and Dustmans (1980) Congruence Model. Source Needle and strategy before the transformation process.This inevitability requires that management have looked at and decided on the grab strategy in advance it almost contradicts the process as one would assume that the strategic direction would follow the process and possibly the railroad siding. With the inclusion of the feedback loop it could be considered that this is the fictional character and its position here is roll fitting with the experiential learning hertz of Kola (1984). At the application stages of this research when the case studies are looked at it will be interesting to see where this features in the reality of the organizations.All of the models looked at and discussed above c an besides ever be a simplification of reality. In terms of change management it is the ability to take these models and look at their use in routine ability to become an appropriate conceptual framework for taking an existing line and managing the desired change within the relevant circumstances. Out of all of the models looked at the author feels that the congruence model is the cost applicable within the research to be carried out.This is by and large due to its strategic focus, and consideration of the individual. As previously mentioned the models only become applicable and useful if application as a conceptual framework can be adopted. This will be applied and analyses within the findings chapter (Section 5). Drivers for change There are many drivers for change and these are dependent upon on the area of change that you address. This is such a huge topic and an in-depth analysis far-off exceeds the scope that the topic can drive within this thesis.It is hoped that the m ain drivers for change for each organization will become seeming(a) within the case study analysis as these are very personal and dependent on both the organization and the industry that the organization is operating within. The following drivers for change are include to provide context and provide some provender for thought these have been taken from the text Understanding Change, by Hellhole (2006). competitor Globalization Demands for greater transparency and answerability Global Sustainability Technology The e-economy The consumer revolution The accessible context Knowledge Management succeeding(a) organizational trendsChanging industrial relations climate and employment legislation Stereotypical social attitudes The rise of the stakeholder Degree at which inception progresses Demographics and Social fragmentation they believe to be the 10 top drivers for organizational change in 2010 whilst these make interesting drill for the author, the author is of particular suppor t with the tenth part a new-sprung(prenominal) war for talent commences. This picks up on what the author has been toilsome to convey throughout the sections on power Management (Section 3. ) and Knowledge Management (Section 3. 3). not only are there external drivers for change UT internal ones too. As mountain recover from the economic crisis they will begin to drive frontwards organizational change in a compress to better themselves and get credit and arrogance of their work to the organization. Organizations need to bear this is mind and respond appropriately. The ten top drivers for organizational change as identified by Bloomberg Businesslike (2010) are 1 . Consumer preferences will remain re frontwardsness establish on values, not pricier.Energy costs will encompass to increase in the medium termed. U. S. appraise policy could erode the matched fix of U. S. Companies. Innovation happens for emerging market consumers, not in emerging markets 05. A new return to ve rtical integration gains travelling bag 06. Industry shifts create competitive shifts 07. Increases in information requires more Judgment from stopping point makers 08. Markets reward long-term strategic focuses. scotch recovery wont mean recovery for everyone 010. A new war for talent commences Bloomberg Businesslike (2010).Kurt Lenin root focused change theory Kurt Lenin can be quoted as saying Group life is never without change (1947). Predominantly Kurt Lenin presents us with a change management theory revolving round the concept of unfreezing change and refreezing which presents a high- level approach to change. This has specific relationships back to the give instruction of force-out management due to its importance for change in ag pigeonholing telescopes as highlighted by Lenin in his work Frontiers in Group dynamics addressing the art of social science of social equilibrium and social change (1947).Linens work is not only applicable in a group vista it also hold s great importance for the individual context too as well as large communities of practice and team ups (Lenin, 1947). Through use of he model there is scope for management to make a radical change, minimize disruption of trading operations and ensure that the change becomes a standing(prenominal) and rooted element of the organization through the re-freezing stage.The model, very focused around acquire people to change as foreign to changing an organization, consists of three stages Unfreezing This is based upon the impudence that there is a need to change as present practices may have become outdated, slow, ineffective, expensive etc. The need to enliven the unfreezing stage is typically based upon an confidence that the status quo is no longer coveted or positive exulting from this there is often a motivation for change, the team unites, recognizes the need for change and begins the process of change management.It is indwelling there is some degree of confidence amongs t the team that the change will be implemented and fulfilled success mounty in order to achieve group buy-in and a positive Psychological Contract. The Change Normal change management theories and principles generally come into play here. Whilst the team may all be on usual stress will develop, individuals will have contrary ideas of the perceived outcomes, expectations will not be managed, the Psychological Contract minimize etc This is a time of exploration of opportunities where goals and objectives are set and carrying into action for change is developed.Lenin stresses the fact that it is essential as with any other change management theory that goals, objectives and plans for implementation are continually assessed and reassessed in order to generate the best possible outcomes. It is important to mark here that whilst the objectives are important for Lenin this does not necessarily form the most essential stage. His focus upon change within groups provides a perspective t hat is more in line with the needs of individuals and maintain positive relationships and focus, in order to bring near a successful re- freezing stage as described below.Re-freezing At the close of the change discussions when implementation has been rolled out across all involved, Lenin identifies the need for re-freezing. Change will only reach its full effect if its made permanent (Lenin, 1947). As in the re-freezing of a liquid it is important to cement or solidify the change making it an official procedure of the organization in drawing specific attention to the completion of the project and the new processes re-freezing would then inhibit individuals returning to the old ways as existed pre-change process.Refreezing is the heart of this model. Lenin (1947) comments, A change towards a higher level of group motion is frequently short-lived, after a shot in the arm, group life soon returns to the previous level. This indicates that it does not suffice to define the objectiv e of be after change in group murder as the reaching of a different level. Permanency of the new level, or permanency for a desired period, should be included in the objective. Figure 13 Kurt Linens model of unfreezing and re-freezing.Source Adapted from Lenin (1947) Right Sizing There are various authors who have looked into the correlativity between the size of it of the firm in terms of personnel and effectiveness in organizational performance. There is however tacit a heightened awareness that there are additional variables that impose upon organizational effectiveness namely technology it is said that this could possibly account for up to fifty per cent of the variability in result findings which lead to an inconclusive theory being pro pose (Senior and Swales, 2010).Culture, leadership style, and governance all have an influence on the correlation teens size and organizational performance. Child (1988) who investigated into the correlation between size and performance concluded that the leadership style operated within the organization was relevant to the size of the organization (number of employees employed). It was the leadership style and subsequent influence into the structure that Childs (1988) sees as having an impact upon organizational effectiveness including role specialism and formalization.Senior and Swales (2010) summaries the work of Child (1988) large organizations with a higher degree of bureaucracy structure were in general better performed. bureaucracy did not work for the smaller organization who had a better degree of performance with a more informal leadership style. In organizations with below 2,000 people performance was assumed to be better in those that have little formal structure more bureaucracy and superior performance was greater (Senior and Swales, 2010). some(prenominal) external driving forces for change (Section 3. 4. ) such as the latest economic climate and recent fadeout which have occurred at both local , regional, topic and even international levels have created a heightened degree of urgency or organizations to increase efficiency many are doing this through operations management and seeing the organizations as a clearly defined set of inputs, processes and outputs. The author is of the belief that for successful change management to occur the process of managing change must occur holistically, which can also occur when viewed through the strategic lens.Both the fast survival and long term sustenance of any organization heavily depends on organizational responsiveness to its external environment and its ability to face the external challenge. A huge problem facing strategic re-focusing of operations creates opposition due to an worked up connection to common practice challenged by the need to change for survival (Balloon and Hope-Halley, 2008, Sense, 1993). With the distinct lack of literature on full sizing the author has conceptualized a model that illustrates where the co ncept of upright-sizing fits into the organization.Taking the multi-lens perspective approach (Regional and Sprinter, 1996) and essential elements of organizational management the author proposes that the concept of right sizing is situated predominately within the cognitive lens. Figure 14 line of right sizing within the organization Right sizing would normally e linked to the structural view of the organization. The clear-sighted Lens considers the structure of the organization as an ought-to-be scenario.The Cognitive Lens considers right sizing as what is practicably possible scenario. The able Lens considers finish and corporate politics as an impediment to change which is what many change managers attempt to override or ignore. With the cognitive lens approach culture and corporate politics are seen as an intrinsic component of change. Therefore culture and corporate politics should be understood and made to become enablers within the change management process.This is curr ently the issue that several organizations are facing. By positioning right sizing as a resulting federal agent of a combination of Organizational Culture, political science and Organizational Type the author feels that it will help in the analysis stages where the variety of case studies will be analyses. As mentioned within Section 2 the case study profiles were deliberately selected by the author for their variations in size.The author feels that it is important to note here that there is not necessarily a formula for what is the right size of an organization or a specific team dealing with change management, UT that this may be discussed throughout the finding and analysis chapter (Section 5) where the case studies may lead towards generating an joust as to what works best. The Readiness of Change Several articles regarding both individual and institutional readiness to change (readiness) within an organizational context have been written over the centuries.Many well respecte d, and up-and-coming academics have posed models and theories in relation to how readiness can be increased, encouraged and developed within both individual and institutional spheres of influence a large gap that is shut up existent in the knowledge base centers around the definition of readiness to change. Several pieces of relevant academic literature and twist together a picture towards a comprehensive definition of readiness for change.Holt et alls work which has been consulted extensively opens with an important issue that the author must recognize the lack of measurement of readiness for change does not arise from a lack of instruments designed for this purpose. There are several in existence but without a common and universal apprehensiveness of what constitutes readiness a liable and lively framework, to operate quantitatively cannot (and has not currently) been developed.Evidently, with readiness being an area of research that is being encouraged (Holt et al, 2007) this is therefore an area that requires the knowledge gap being fulfilled in order for research in this area to pursue. It is the aim of the forthcoming section to be devoted to this cause, reviewing the use of the literature, working towards a definition of readiness, and identifying means of its analysis within a strategic institutionally based context. There is also the need for the adopted method to be suitable to institutions of different natures, sizes and specialties as always generalization is imperative.Readiness and shield are they related concepts? The concept of readiness is a result of the concept and result of defense a sweeping statement or Just a different approach? It is perhaps no surprise, that change management due to its inclusion with the human resource management approach is exceedingly subjective to the reactions of people (employees). This would explain the development of the need to research readiness, resulting from managers efforts to rationalise resist ance to change.Again the body of literature exists in this area, yet Ramekins et al (1993, cited in Holt et al, 2007) put advancing their argument that any of these, strategies designed to help managers avoid resistance, are effective only to the extent which they facilitate employee readiness. The circular nature of this issue is again illustrated here. The variation of the Traditional HARM philosophy into the personnel management phase transfers its focus from objectives and output into placing value, focus and ultimately having an investment and betrothal with he people.To some extent it can be argued that traditionally to date the people management processes within educational setting operate under this philosophy a large degree of responsibility and supreme working is put upon the employees and in answer it is hoped that the organization values staffs contributions. General motivational principles (Amazon, etc ) encourage the involvement of employees in a drive to encoura ge general load to organizational objectives and partnering of aims, especially plans for development, drive forward and ultimately change.Readiness has been looked at with a specific workforce focus whilst this is important, organizational culture, as explored above, external pressures and the lack of a strategic dimension can also reduce organizational readiness. What impact does this have on the organizations desire to change and move into a market leader position, driving forward its position within the market and gaining an prefer in what is a highly competitive market arena. Oakland and tans Organizational Change good example Research supporting the model Oakland and Tanner have been instrumental in the field of research into change